Effect of Takeover Request Time and Warning Modality on Trust in L3 Automated Driving

Objective This study investigated the effects of four takeover request (TOR) times and seven warning modalities on performance and trust in automated driving on a mildly congested urban road scenario, as well as the relationship between takeover performance and trust.Background Takeover is crucial in L3 automated driving, where human-machine codriving is employed. Establishing trust in takeover scenarios among drivers can enhance the acceptance of autonomous vehicles, thereby promoting their widespread adoption.Method Using a driving simulator, data from 28 participants, including collision counts, takeover time (ToT), electrodermal activity (EDA) data, and self-reported trust scores, were collected and analyzed primarily using Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM).Results Collisions during the takeover undermined participants' trust in the autonomous driving system. As TOR time increased, participants' trust improved, and the longer TOR time did not lead to participant confusion. There was no significant relationship between warning modality and trust. Furthermore, the combination of three warning modalities did not exhibit a notable advantage over the combination of two modalities.Conclusion The study examined the effects of TOR time and warning modality on trust, as well as preliminarily explored the potential association between takeover performance, including collisions and ToT, and trust in autonomous driving takeovers.Application Researchers and designers of automotive interactions were given referenceable TOR time and warning modality by this study, which extended the autonomous driving takeover scenarios. These findings contributed to boosting drivers' confidence in transferring control to the automated system.