Imaging sequences in cardiovascular magnetic resonance: current role, evolving applications, and technical challenges

Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has been established as a powerful and comprehensive imaging modality for studying the cardiovascular (CV) system. Shortly after invention of magnetic resonance imaging, CMR applications and developments started to emerge, and they continue to evolve up to the present day. CMR has the advantages of high spatial resolution, enhanced tissue contrast, superior safety profile, and the plethora of physiological parameters that can be obtained. In the near future, CMR is expected to be the gold standard modality for comprehensive CV imaging. Specifically, CMR imaging sequences are increasingly growing in parallel with advancements in scanner hardware. Not only do CMR imaging sequences provide detailed anatomical information, but they also provide functional, perfusion, viability, hemodynamic, and metabolic information about the CV system. In this article, an up-to-date review of different CMR imaging sequences is presented. Each sequence is described along with typical imaging parameters, necessary image processing steps, derived CV parameters, and potential applications. The article then addresses advanced CMR imaging techniques and emerging applications. Finally, the challenges facing CMR imaging are discussed along with its expected future role.