Anxiety, Depression, and Their Comorbidity: An Experience Sampling Test of the Helplessness-Hopelessness Theory

This prospective study applied the experience sampling method to test the helplessness-hopelessness theory of anxiety and depression (Alloy, Kelly, Mineka, & Clements, 1990). Forty-four subjects with attributional styles at high or low risk for depression were signaled five times daily by electronic pagers to provide reports of negative events, attributions, and anxious and depressed moods. Consistent with the theory, causal attributions of stability and globality explained increases in depressed mood immediately after negative events. Attributional style predicted these causal attributions but did not directly explain changes in postevent depressed mood. Despite support for more established components of the theory, no support was found for newer aspects concerning the relationship of control attributions to anxious mood. The implications for understanding the helplessness-hopelessness theory and anxiety and depression comorbidity are discussed.