Karst conduit contribution to spring discharge and aquifer cross-sectional area

Groundwater flow discharging to springs from carbonate aquifers is governed by the interaction of slow matrix flow and fast fracture/conduit flow, which creates highly complex flow and transport conditions. An important unknown is the relative contribution of matrix and conduit flow to the total discharge. This study experimentally investigated groundwater fluxes in the Floridan aquifer within the springshed of Silver Springs, FL, one of the largest freshwater springs in the world with mean discharge of approximately 20 m(3)/s. Using in situ passive flux meters (PFMs, n = 48 at 16 wells) and a new karstic borehole dilution (KBHD, n = 21 at 7 wells) technique we measured groundwater fluxes in rock matrix and non-matrix (conduit and fracture) zones of 0.06 +/- 0.003 m/day and 3.05 +/- 1.8 m/day (mean +/- standard error). These data, combined with previously conducted tracer tests (n = 12 at 3 sites), were coupled with simple analytical and numerical solutions to identify the proportion of the aquifer that contributes most significantly to water flow to the spring with three different modeling scenarios: single domain, dual domain including matrix and non-matrix zones, and triple domain including matrix, fracture, and conduit zones. The analytical and numerical models coupled with the in situ measured fluxes for the dual and triple domain scenarios showed good agreement with measured head profiles (Nash-Sutcliffe E > 0.90), when compared to the homogeneous porous domain scenario (E = -1.84). Conduit and fracture zones were estimated to represent between 2% and 22% of the aquifer cross-sectional area (at radial distance of 3 km from the spring outlet), yet these zones contributed between 75 and 96% of the total groundwater flow. The results of this study offer field-measured hydrogeologic data that can be used for active resource management in springsheds, and the simple modeling approach presented here may be applicable to other springsheds with fairly simple geometry to estimate the relative contributions of fast and slow water flow and solute transport pathways to the spring outlet.