Mineralogy and geochemistry of various colored boles from the Deccan volcanic province: Implications for paleoweathering and paleoenvironmental conditions

Boles are markers of hiatus in successive eruptions of the Deccan flood volcanism (DFV) emplaced at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary that are interpreted to retain paleoenvironmental information from their sub aerial exposure. To evaluate paleoenvironment during these hiatuses, mineralogy and geochemistry of three different colors of boles, i.e., red (dark = 10R-3/6 and light = 10R-4/8), brown (5YR-4/4) and green (5G-6/2) were examined. The plagioclase index of alteration (PIA) (loss of Ca and Na relative to Al) was between 76 and 81 for all the boles, indicating moderate chemical weathering that is probably due to their short subaerial exposures. Mass balance calculations show significant enrichments of K, Si, Mg and Rb in green and brown boles suggesting an allochthonous input that is interpreted as volcanic ash fallout. Mineralogically, the red bole is dominated by montmorillonite and hematite, the brown bole of ferruginous smectite and montmorillonite, and the green bole of celadonite and nontronite. Montmorillonite and hematite genesis in red boles indicates leaching in an oxidative environment at near neutral pH (similar to 5.5 to 8) conditions. Further, heating of the altered basalt from emplacement of upper lava flows under subaerial-dry conditions could have also promoted the formation of hematite in red boles. The hydro thermal alteration of K and Mg enriched volcanic ash admixed with the altered lower flow basalt under slightly reducing oxidation potential led to the genesis of nontronite and celadonite in the green bole. The aluminous Fesmectite in brown bole occurred from hydrothermal alteration of aluminous clays (e.g., montmorillonite). The different colored boles, therefore, suggest a range of weathering processes including chemical leaching to hydrothermal alteration in oxidative to reducing environmental conditions throughout DFV emplacement that could reflect changing surficial conditions associated with volcanically forced changes to the environment.