Fluorescent nanoprobes for sensing and imaging of metal ions: Recent advances and future perspectives

Recent advances in nanoscale science and engineering have generated nanomaterials with unique optical properties. Over the past decade, numerous fluorescent nanoprobes have been developed for highly sensitive and selective sensing and imaging of metal ions, both in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent development of the design and optical properties of the different classes of fluorescent nanoprobes based on noble metal nanomaterials, upconversion nanoparticles, semiconductor quantum dots, and carbon-based nanomaterials. We further detail their application in the detection and quantification of metal ions for environmental monitoring, food safety, medical diagnostics, as well as their use in biomedical imaging in living cells and animals. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.