A systematic review on maternal and perinatal factors influencing breast development

Background: A secular trend towards earlier age at menarche has been reported, but the trend in breast devel-opment is less clear. We reviewed the evidence on the relationship between in utero and early life events and breast onset/development.Methods: Eligible studies were identified in PubMed and Embase databases. We selected studies in which female human exposure during fetal or the first years of life was measured or estimated, and associations with breast onset or development were evaluated.Results: Of the 49 cohort studies and 5 cross-sectional studies identified, 43 provided sufficient data to assess associations. High maternal weight, primiparity, and early weight gain, were related to an increased risk of early breast onset/development in most of the studies that analysed these associations, whereas late breast onset/ development was associated with preterm birth. Results were inconsistent for smoking in pregnancy, maternal hypertensive disorders, breastfeeding, diabetes, and small for gestational age. No association emerged for maternal age at delivery, alcohol drinking, and selected drug use during pregnancy, and low birth weight.Conclusions: The results of this review show that high maternal weight, primiparity and early weight gain were associated with an increased risk of early breast onset/development. Late breast onset/development was asso-ciated with preterm birth.Breast development is a key physical marker of puberty onset, and early puberty development is linked to consequences that can reverberate throughout life. Answering the questions about the interconnections between pre/postnatal environmental exposures and their impact on puberty, represents an important area of multidis-ciplinary research.