Has COVID-19 increased inequality in mortality by income in the Netherlands?

BackgroundIn the Netherlands in 2020, COVID-19 deaths were more concentrated among individuals with a lower income. At the same time, COVID-19 was a new cause that also displaced some deaths from other causes, potentially reducing income-related inequality in non-COVID deaths. Our aim is to estimate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the income-related inequality in total mortality and decompose this into the inequality in COVID-attributed deaths and changes in the inequality in non-COVID causes. MethodsWe estimate excess deaths (observed minus trend-predicted deaths) by sex, age and income group for the Netherlands in 2020. Using a measure of income-related inequality (the concentration index), we decompose the inequality in total excess mortality into COVID-19 versus non-COVID causes. ResultsCause-attributed COVID-19 mortality exceeded total excess mortality by 12% for the 65-79 age group and by about 35% for 80+ in the Netherlands in 2020, implying a decrease in the number of non-COVID deaths compared with what was predicted. The income-related inequality in all-cause mortality was higher than predicted. This increase in inequality resulted from the combination of COVID-19 mortality, which was more unequally distributed than predicted total mortality, and the inequality in non-COVID causes, which was less unequal than predicted. ConclusionThe COVID-19 pandemic has led to an increase in income-related inequality in all-cause mortality. Non-COVID mortality was less unequally distributed than expected due to displacement of other causes by COVID-19 and the potentially unequal broader societal impact of the pandemic.