Presence and motivation: Comparing synchronous and asynchronous learning environments for foreign language learners using path analysis

This study addresses the necessity of comprehending the remote learning environment for improving online course design and delivery. The primary objective is to investigate the impact of teaching, cognitive, and social presence, along with learner motivation from the Community of Inquiry framework, on students' learning satisfaction in both asynchronous and synchronous learning contexts. Conducted as an international project, data collection involved three distinct courses across U.S. and Korean universities for one semester, with participants from asynchronous (n = 74) and synchronous (n = 63) remote language classes. Using a mixed-methods approach, the study explored variables of interest and learning satisfaction. Path analysis results indicated consistent patterns in both modes, with students' learning satisfaction significantly predicted by presences and motivation. While the majority of pathways in synchronous and asynchronous remote learning modes exhibited similarities, distinctions were noted between the two modes. In the synchronous mode, social presence emerged as the strongest predictor for cognitive presence and students' learning satisfaction, suggesting the importance of open communication and collaboration in the synchronous mode. In contrast, motivation emerged as the strongest predictor in the asynchronous mode, highlighting the need for self-regulation and autonomy. Qualitative data complemented quantitative findings, reinforcing the importance of tailoring learning activity designs for different contexts. The results of the study contribute to the ongoing debate on improving learning and teaching in different online learning settings, especially in synchronous and asynchronous remote learning.