Bureaucratic conflict between transnational actor coalitions: The diffusion of British National Vocational Qualifications to China

Quantitative studies of social policy diffusion face substantial challenges regarding their understanding of causal mechanisms. Knowledge of diffusion processes is particularly limited in authoritarian countries, in comparatively autonomous developing countries, and fields of social policy not characterized by hegemonic ideas and strong epistemic communities. This study focuses on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in the People's Republic of China. The conceptual approach is based on the interaction-oriented understanding of causal mechanisms in actor-centred institutionalism, and the framework of lesson drawing. Methodologically, this study follows a process tracing approach, relying on semi-structured interviews with Chinese experts, recently de-classified project reports of the World Bank, and content analysis of Chinese legal and regulatory documents. Analysing why China introduced a system of vocational qualification certificates similar to English National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), rather than German-style dual vocational apprenticeships, it uncovers a mechanism of bureaucratic conflict between competing coalitions of domestic ministries and transnational actors from the UK and Germany in a context of organizational hierarchy with multiple principals. The World Bank here attempted to play the role of a neutral international principal, but could only do so in limited ways and insofar as its preferences were compatible with those of the leadership core of the Party-state. The study illustrates how bureaucratic conflict mediates policy learning, explaining the diffusion and non-diffusion of different policy options. Furthermore, it highlights doubts regarding the mechanism of coercion, which remained largely ineffective.