(9S,13R)-12-oxo-phytodienoic acid attenuates inflammation by inhibiting mPGES-1 and modulating macrophage polarization via NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) relieve inflammation by suppressing prostaglandin E-2/cyclooxygenase 2 (PGE(2)/COX-2) with cardiovascular and gastrointestinal bleeding risk. Theoretically, suppressing PGE(2) through inhibiting the terminal synthase microsomal prostaglandin E-2 synthase-1 (mPGES-1) instead of upstream COX-2 is ideal for inflammation. Here, (9S,13R)-12-oxo-phytodienoic acid (AA-24) extracted from Artemisia anomala was first screened as an anti-inflammatory candidate and decreased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), nitric oxide (NO), mPGES-1, and PGE(2) without affecting COX-1/2, thromboxane A(2) (TXA(2)) and prostaglandin I-2 (PGI(2)). Besides, AA-24 suppressed the differentiation of M0 macrophages to M1 phenotype but enhanced it to M2 phenotype, blocked the activation of NF-kappa B pathway, and increased the activation of Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Moreover, AA-24 selectively inhibited mPGES-1 and reduced inflamed paw edema in carrageenan-induced mice. In conclusion, AA-24 attenuates inflammation by inhibiting mPGES-1 and modulating macrophage polarization via the NF-kappa B and Nrf2/HO-1 pathways and could be a promising candidate for developing anti-inflammatory drugs.