'Holy War Made in Germany'? Ottoman Origins of the 1914 Jihad

From the beginning the 1914 Ottoman jihad proclamation was portrayed by the Allies as the linchpin of a German scheme to revolutionize Muslim populations in the territories of Berlin's enemies: in British Egypt and India, in French North Africa, and in the Russian Caucasus and Central Asia. This article questions the cliche of the German jihad by situating the 1914 declaration in its deeper Ottoman historical context. Did the Ottomans need Berlin's blandishments to convince them of the advantages of issuing a jihad (jih (a) over bard) declaration in 1914?