Spatiotemporal variability of the latest frosts in Korean Peninsula and causes of atmospheric circulation

The spatiotemporal distributions of latest frost dates (LFDs) on the Korean Peninsula and the atmospheric circulation patterns that resulted in the latest frosts (LFs) were investigated through the use of historical records and modern weather observation data. During the modern observation period since 1904, the most recent record of LF was April 28, 2013 at Daegwallyeong. On average, the LF occurred in Korea between March 17 (at Wando) and May 10 (at Daegwallyeong). Positive correlations were found between LFD and altitude and latitude. Additionally, inter- annual variation of LFD showed a trend of progressively earlier dates at 32 of the 48 stations at which data were available. The historic data set consists of the following: 39 records of frosts during the Three-States Period (57 BC-998 AD): 34 records during the Goryeo Dynasty (998-1391), among which the latest record was in July of the lunar calendar: and 498 during the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1928) with one LF dated August 31, 1417 on the solar calendar. Regarding LFD from The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, April has 11 records, May has 55, June has 46, July has 21, and August has 5 LFD records. Various meteorological causes of the latest LF were then established. Firstly, a cold and humid north-easterly current that originates from high latitudes of more than 50A degrees N and passes through the East Sea is considered one of the dominant causes of LF. Secondly, strong radiative cooling under clear skies is suspected as another important cause. Thirdly, a specific pressure pattern, called the 'inverted-S contour' or 'North High and South Low (NHSL) pattern' was found to be a favorable condition for LF. Finally the latest LF was not found to be related to monthly or longer-term cold climate, but are instead linked to the abrupt development of a strong ridge over inland Asia and the unusual southward movement of the tall polar cyclone over the North Pacific Ocean.