Volumetric displacement of flow depth by obstacles, and the determination of friction factors in shallow overland flows

Large roughness elements such as stones or plant stems (obstacles) influence the depth of overland flows in two ways. The first effect is a dynamic one, involving frictional retardation of the flow and associated reduction in flow speeds. The second influence is static, and arises from the upward volumetric displacement of now depth because of the submerged volume of the obstacles. Depending upon the distribution of submerged obstacle volume with height above the soil surface, the proportion of the flow volume occupied (and so, them perturbation of flow depth arising from volumetric displacement) can vary irregularly or systematically with flow stage. Furthermore, the amount of volumetric displacement of flow depth would vary among surfaces carrying different cover fractions of identical obstacles. Consequently, estimates of the change in friction factors arising from the drag on flow, traversing varying obstacle cover fractions are confounded with the parallel shift volumetric displacement. To understand the true frictional drag arising from obstacles, a correction must be made for the volumetric displacement. A method for making this correction is outlined. New laboratory experiments provide precise observations of depths and friction coefficients in laminar flows passing fields of regular obstacles. After making the proposed correction for volumetric displacement, increases of 40 to 75 per cent in the derived value of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor, f, are found for an obstacle cover of 20 per cent, Many published studies of friction coefficients in shallow overland flows, such as those on stone-covered dryland soils, involve larger obstacle cover fractions, and evidently involve the significant confounding effect of volumetric displacement. Copyright (C) 2002 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.