Evaluating 9 m of near-surface transpressional displacement during the Mw 7.8 2016 Kaikoura earthquake: re-excavation of a pre-earthquake paleoseismic trench, Kekerengu Fault, New Zealand

During the Kaikoura earthquake, a paleoseismic trench was dextrally displaced similar to 9 m and shortened by 1.3 +/- 0.4 m - the largest globally recorded displacement of a trench. Analysis showed that two processes accommodated subequal amounts of slip at the surface: (1) discrete dextral-slip on two steeply-dipping faults bounding a <3.5 m wide central deformation zone; and (2) coseismic clockwise rotation of turf rafts and pervasive sediment deformation in that zone. The second (successive) process resulted in upward (<1 m) and outward (<2 m) bulging along low-angle thrusts, creating horizontal fault-perpendicular shortening that exceeds the heave (similar to 1.3 m). This discrepancy results from coseismic rotation of rafts, that shorten upon approaching perpendicularity with the fault - creating extra apparent shortening (in fault-orthogonal view). Comparison of pre- and post-earthquake trench logs indicates that strike-slip ruptures at the same site can be expressed differently over time; fault strands carrying major displacement in 2016 were not the locus of deformation in the previous earthquake(s), suggesting temporal unpredictability is important in defining fault zones. The last several paleoearthquakes at the trench produced cm-dm scale normal-sense dip separations across faults; however, the 2016 earthquake created compressive structures including up-bulging and low-angle reverse faulting, as well as fissuring. This contrast in deformation style likely resulted from an >8 degrees clockwise rotation of the local slip vector in 2016 (becoming transpressive), highlighting that small changes in slip kinematics may affect rupture zone structures.