Drivers of hunting and photographic tourism income to communal conservancies in Namibia

Hunting and photographic tourism provide ecosystem services that can facilitate conservation. Understanding factors influencing how tourism industries generate income is necessary to ensure sustainable community-based natural resource management. We evaluated effects of large mammal occurrence and landscape attributes on incomes from hunting and photographic tourism earned by communal conservancies in Namibia during 1998-2022. We compiled annual incomes and occurrence of 'Big 5' species (elephant [Loxodonta africana], buffalo [Syncerus caffer], black rhino [Diceros bicornis], lion [Panthera leo], and leopard [P. pardus]) using conservancy accounting and wildlife monitoring data. Hunting occurred in 70 of 86 conservancies and generated income almost twice as rapidly as photographic tourism (2.9 and 5.4 years after conservancy establishment, respectively). Hunting income increased with conservancy area and number of Big 5 species present but decreased with conservancy age and increasing mean elevation, topographic diversity, and distances to national parks. Photographic tourism occurred in 39 conservancies and generated 447 % greater median annual income than hunting for conservancies earning >$0. Big 5 species occurrence increased the probability conservancies earned >$0 photographic income but not the amount of photographic income. Photographic income increased with conservancy age and higher annual precipitation but decreased with higher mean elevation. Large mammals are an important driver of income to Namibia's conservancies and hunting and photographic tourism can provide complementary benefits. We recommend Namibia's conservancies, particularly those established more recently with smaller area, consider inter-conservancy wildlife comanagement and collaboration with tourism industries to improve income potential and develop more sustainable community-based natural resource economies.