My way, your way, or no way? How Mobility-as-a-Service ecosystems emerge

Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) apps help their users use and combine multiple mobility services, such as car-sharing and public transport. Many mobility providers are considering how to position themselves in this changing environment and whether to enter the service ecosystem of one or more MaaS app providers. To explain the development and emergence of service ecosystems, we develop a midrange theory by complementing the service-dominant logic perspective with Activity Theory. We test our theoretical model by analyzing empirical evidence collected in interviews with experts from German public transport organizations, some of which are entering or have entered the service ecosystem of the Moovel Group GmbH, which provides the Reach Now app. Our results indicate that it is the current development phase of service ecosystems that influences whether a mobility provider joins the service ecosystem of a MaaS app provider, a MaaS app provider enters the mobility provider's service ecosystem, or both service ecosystems remain unconnected. Furthermore, our study results indicate that shared objects play a decisive role in connecting activity systems and thereby influence the development and emergence of service ecosystems.