The effects of hemodialysis on the cardiovascular system

Chronic kidney disease and dialysis-dependent end-stage renal disease are increasing in prevalence in the United States. The costs associated with end-stage renal disease management comprise approximately 1% of the federal government's annual budget. Chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease cause significant derangements of the cardiac and vascular system. Pathophysiologic hallmarks include alterations of the reninangiotensin system, chronically increased sympathetic tone, calcium and phosphate imbalance, pro-inflammatory cytokine release, and uremic toxin accumulation. This results in several pathologies specific to the cardiac and vascular systems, which will each be reviewed separately herein. Published by Elsevier Inc.