A three-level meta-analytic review of research on virtual field trips and their contribution to students' academic achievement

Several primary studies have documented the positive effect of virtual field trips on students' academic achievement, while others have reported inconsistent results. Therefore, this three-level meta-analysis examined the effect of virtual field trips on the academic achievement of students from primary to tertiary education levels, addressing the inconsistencies in primary research findings. Of 382 records identified through an extensive literature search, 33 studies with 47 dependent effect sizes based on data from 4296 students were deemed eligible for inclusion in the analysis. The analysis yielded a large and positive effect size on average (g = 1.36, 95% CI [0.99, 1.73]), with significant within and between-study variance. Among the several categorical moderators examined, none of them significantly accounted for this effect size variability. Overall, the study concluded that virtual field trips may positively contribute to students' academic achievement despite having varying effects yielded by primary studies.