Prey choice and changes in site occupation intensity during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic at Ghar-e Boof (southern Zagros Mountains, Iran)

Ghar-e Boof represents an exceptional Paleolithic site in the southern Zagros Mountains. Due to its long Late Pleistocene sequence that spans from ca. 81 ka until the Epipaleolithic, the site offers a unique opportunity to investigate long-term hominin behavioral patterns on a local scale. In this paper, we examine diachronic trends in prey choice and site occupation intensity during the Middle Paleolithic (MP) through early Upper Paleolithic (UP) at Ghar-e Boof as determined from zooarchaeological data, find densities, accumulation rates, and frequencies of retouched tools. To better understand foraging conditions, variation (or the lack thereof) in species representation and relative abundances are analyzed following the prey choice model of optimal foraging theory. Based on energetic return rates and procurement costs, we distinguish between high-ranked (large and small, slow-moving game) and low-ranked (small-bodied or small, fast-moving game) resources. The occupants of Ghar-e Boof preferentially hunted large game during the MP and early UP and relied on caprines as the main source of meat and marrow. However, there is an increase in the exploitation of fast-moving animals, mostly partridges, relative to small, slow-moving tortoises through the sequence. In addition, site occupation intensity also increased with time. A more intense use of Ghar-e Boof during the early UP may reflect larger groups of people living at the site, more frequent visits, longer periods of occupation, or a combination of some, if not all, of these possibilities. The increased economic importance of lower-ranked prey does not appear to track major environmental or climatic changes, and most likely is tied to higher hunting pressures. The archaeological record of Ghar-e Boof is currently the only example in the Zagros that illustrates the complex interactions between demography, site use, and socioeconomic decisions during the Late Pleistocene, a crucial time period in human evolution.