Characteristics of Precipitation and Mesoscale Convective Systems Over the Peruvian Central Andes in Multi 5-Year Convection-Permitting Simulations

Using the Weather Research and Forecasting model with two planetary boundary layer schemes, ACM2 and MYNN, convection-permitting model (CPM) regional climate simulations were conducted for a 6-year period, including a one-year spin-up period, at a 15-km grid spacing covering entire South America and a nested convection-permitting 3-km grid spacing covering the Peruvian central Andes region. These two CPM simulations along with a 4-km simulation covering South America produced by National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), three gridded precipitation products, and rain gauge data in Peru and Brazil, are used to document the characteristics of precipitation and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) in the Peruvian central Andes region. Results show that all km-scale simulations generally capture the spatiotemporal patterns of precipitation and MCSs at both seasonal and diurnal scales, although biases exist in aspects such as precipitation intensity and MCS frequency, size, propagation speed, and associated precipitation intensity. The 3-km simulation using MYNN scheme generally outperforms the other simulations in capturing seasonal and diurnal precipitation over the mountain, while both it and the 4-km simulation demonstrate superior performance in the western Amazon Basin, based on the comparison to the gridded precipitation products and gauge data. Dynamic factors, primarily low-level jet and terrain-induced uplift, are the key drivers for precipitation and MCS genesis along the east slope of the Andes, while thermodynamic factors control the precipitation and MCS activity in the western Amazon Basin and over elevated mountainous regions. The study suggests model improvements and better model configurations for future regional climate projections. We ran high-resolution model simulations at a 3-km grid spacing with ACM2 and MYNN planetary boundary layer schemes for a 6-year period, including a 1-year spin-up, to investigate precipitation and storm patterns in the Peruvian central Andes region. Other data sets including a 4-km simulation produced by National Center for Atmospheric Research, three gridded precipitation products, and rain gauge data in Peru and Brazil were collected for comparison and evaluation. We found that all km-scale simulations capture overall patterns of precipitation and storms at both seasonal and sub-daily time scales, although some discrepancies exist in precipitation intensity and storm details. Compared to the gridded precipitation products and gauge data, the 3-km simulation using MYNN scheme generally outperforms the other simulations in capturing seasonal and diurnal precipitation over the mountain, while both it and the 4-km simulation demonstrate superior performance in the western Amazon Basin. Low-level wind and terrain-induced uplift are the key drivers for precipitation and storm genesis along the Andes' eastern slopes, while factors associated with vertical structures of temperature and humidity control the precipitation and storm activity in the western Amazon Basin and mountain regions. The study suggests model improvements and better model configurations for future regional climate projections. Characteristics of precipitation and mesoscale convective systems (MCSs) in the Peruvian Central Andes are investigated based on convection-permitting simulations WRF3km_MYNN outperforms in simulating mountain precipitation; both it and WRF4km_SAAG show superior performance in western Amazon Dynamic factors dominate precipitation and MCSs on the Andean east slope, while thermodynamic factors are dominant in western Amazon Basin